THE HISTORY OF WHEAT
Wheat was first cultivated in the Fertile Crescent around 10,000 years ago and became a staple crop supporting the rise of civilizations. From its origins, wheat spread globally, reaching ancient Egypt, where Egyptians developed yeast-leavened bread, and later Europe by 4000 BC. European colonists brought wheat to the Americas, where its cultivation eventually led to its status as a global staple food today.
Origins and early cultivation
Fertile Crescent:
Wheat was first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, an area in the Middle East. Early cultivated species included einkorn and emmer.
Spread:
Cultivation spread from the Fertile Crescent starting around 8,000 BCE, reaching Egypt, India, and Greece.
The ancient Egyptians were among the first to cultivate wheat on a large scale and develop large-scale baking, including yeast-leavened bread.
Global expansion
Asia and Europe:
Wheat cultivation continued to spread, reaching China around 2600 BC and the British Isles by 4000 BC.
The Americas:
European colonists introduced wheat to the Americas, with cultivation becoming a staple crop in the colonies and eventually the United States.
Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution introduced steam-powered milling, which increased production capacity and made wheat more widely available.
Modern wheat
Modern bread wheat is a hybrid that originated from a series of hybridization events involving different wild grasses.
Today, wheat is the most widely grown crop in the world and is a crucial food source, providing about 21% of the world's dietary calories.
THE HISTORY OF SPELT
Spelt is one of the oldest cultivated grains, with a history stretching back to approximately 5000 BCE in Mesopotamia. It was a staple crop throughout ancient Europe, becoming widespread during the Iron Age in regions like southern Britain and Germany. Spelt was largely replaced by higher-yielding common wheat during the industrial revolution, as its tough, protective husk made it incompatible with new threshing machines. It has seen a resurgence in modern times as an "ancient grain" for organic farming and artisanal products.
Ancient origins and spread
Early cultivation:
Archaeological evidence places the first cultivation of spelt around 5000 BCE in the region of modern-day Iraq.
European expansion:
Spelt traveled westward with migrating civilizations and was established in Central Europe by the later Neolithic period (around 2500–1700 BCE).
Major crop:
It became a major type of wheat in southern Germany and Switzerland during the Iron Age (750–15 BCE) and was widespread in Britain by 500 BCE.
Biblical mention:
The grain is mentioned in the Bible under the Hebrew name "Arisab," meaning spelt.
Middle Ages and decline
Continued importance: Spelt remained a significant crop in parts of Europe during the Middle Ages, particularly in mountainous regions where it thrived in rugged terrain.
Industrial displacement: The invention of modern threshing machines in the 1800s led to spelt's decline, as the technology struggled with its tough, "covered" husk. Common wheat, which threshes more easily, became the dominant grain.
Modern introduction: Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s.
Modern resurgence
A "rediscovered" grain:
In recent decades, spelt has gained popularity as an ancient grain, valued for its flavor and nutritional profile.
Organic and artisanal use:
It is often grown today as an organic crop because it can require less fertilizer than modern wheat. It is also used for baking artisanal breads and pastas.
THE HISTORY OF OUR GRAINS
The history of grains began with the domestication of wild grasses around 10,000 years ago in the Neolithic Revolution, which marked the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. Early grains like emmer and einkorn were cultivated in the Fertile Crescent, while other grains like millets, rice, and maize were domesticated in Asia and Mesoamerica. As agriculture spread, different cultures developed their own unique ways of cultivating and preparing grains, which has evolved over millennia through selective breeding and technological advancements.
Early origins and domestication
~10,000 years ago:
Humans began transitioning from hunter-gatherers to farmers, domesticating wild grains for the first time.
First domesticated grains:
Emmer and einkorn wheat, along with barley, were among the first grains domesticated in the Fertile Crescent.
Other early domestications:
Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia, while maize was domesticated in Mesoamerica, and sorghum was domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa.
Initial spread:
Early farming communities grew in isolated pockets, with crops spreading to neighboring regions with similar climates.
Spread and evolution
Wheat, rye, and oats were introduced to the Americas through the Columbian Exchange, where they were successfully cultivated in temperate, higher-altitude regions.
Diversification:
Grains spread across continents through migration, trade, and conquest, adapting to new environments and evolving through selective breeding.
Rise of complex civilizations:
A surplus of grain allowed for the concentration of power in cities, leading to the development of complex civilizations and the rise of specific deities associated with agriculture and grain, such as the Roman goddess Ceres.
Modern cultivation:
The pursuit of higher yields and industrialization led to modern varieties of grains, which have been developed through scientific breeding and biotechnology, a significant departure from the "landrace" varieties of the past.
THE HISTORY OF RYE
Rye originated in Southwestern Asia (modern-day Turkey) and spread to Europe around 2000 BCE. It was a hardy grain that thrived in cooler, less fertile climates, becoming a staple food in Northern and Eastern Europe during the Medieval period because it could grow where wheat could not. Historically, rye was initially considered a "down-market" or "weedy" grain that grew among wheat and barley, but it later became a crucial food source for peasants.
Ancient origins:
The first traces of rye are found in archaeological sites in modern-day Turkey, dating back at least 11,700 years ago.
Migration to Europe:
It spread to Europe around 2000 BCE and was domesticated about 1,000 years later.
Roman and early medieval period:
Rye was considered a poor-quality grain by the Romans and was often mixed with other grains. Early evidence suggests it was cultivated as a secondary crop alongside wheat, not as a primary food source.
Medieval staple:
Due to its ability to grow in harsh, cold climates and poor soil, rye became a staple food in Northern and Eastern Europe, particularly for peasants, who used it for bread and alcohol.
Controversy in origins:
There is some debate about when exactly rye was first domesticated, with some controversial theories suggesting it was the very first cultivated cereal grain.
THE HISTORY OF POLENTA
Polenta has an ancient history, predating its modern corn-based form to Roman times when a porridge called pulmentum was made from grains like spelt, millet, and barley. The introduction of corn to Italy from the New World in the 16th century revolutionized the dish, making it a staple for the lower classes due to its high yield and low cost. Over time, this humble dish evolved from a peasant food into a versatile culinary ingredient found in many forms, from creamy porridge to grilled or fried solid forms, with diverse toppings and accompaniments.
Ancient Origins
The concept of a ground-grain porridge dates back to prehistoric times and was used by ancient civilizations like the Sumerians, who made a porridge from millet and rye.
The Roman Empire consumed a dense porridge called pulmentum (derived from the Latin word for porridge) or puls, which was a staple for soldiers and common people. This early version was made from grains like spelt, barley, or chickpea flour.
The Arrival of Corn
Corn, a staple of Mesoamerica, was brought to Europe from the New World by explorers, including Christopher Columbus.
Corn began to be planted and cultivated in northern Italy around the 16th century, initially in regions like Veneto and Friuli, thanks to missionaries returning from the Americas.
Transformation into a Staple Food
Economic Revolution:
Farmers found that corn had a higher yield and shorter cultivation cycle than traditional grains, making it a more accessible and strength-giving food.
Peasant Food:
Cornmeal became a primary food source for the rural and lower-class populations of northern Italy, providing sustenance through centuries of hunger.
The Rise of Pellagra:
The widespread reliance on cornmeal, especially when not properly prepared or supplemented with other foods, led to a disease called pellagra, a deficiency of niacin (vitamin B3).
Modern Polenta
Today, polenta is a versatile dish that can be served as a creamy porridge, or allowed to harden and then be grilled, baked, or fried.
What was once considered "peasant food" is now a popular dish found in many restaurants and prepared in diverse ways, often paired with sauces, meats, cheeses, and vegetables.
THE HISTORY OF CORN
A STORY OF THE AMERICAS
Corn's history began around 9,000 years ago in Mexico when indigenous peoples domesticated the wild grass teosinte through selective breeding, transforming it from a small, hard-grained plant into the modern crop. It spread throughout the Americas via trade and migration, becoming a vital food and cultural symbol for many Native American civilizations before Europeans brought it to the rest of the world starting in the 1500s.
Domestication in Mexico
Origins: Corn originated from teosinte, a wild grass found in southwestern Mexico.
The process: Ancient farmers began selectively breeding teosinte by saving and planting seeds from plants with desirable traits, a process known as selective breeding. Over thousands of years, this led to the development of the modern corn plant.
Initial transformation: Early domesticated corn still looked different from modern corn, but had characteristics like more kernels per ear and easier-to-access seeds.
Spread across the Americas
Before European contact:
By 1492, corn had spread from Mexico throughout North and South America, adapted to different environments, and developed into many varieties, including popcorn.
Native American cultivation:
Indigenous peoples skillfully bred corn varieties to suit their local climates and developed extensive trade networks.
Cultural significance:
Corn was central to the cultures of many civilizations, such as the Maya, and was used for food, ceremonial purposes, and crafts.
Arrival in Europe and global expansion
First contact:
Spanish explorers like Columbus encountered corn in the Americas and brought it back to Europe in the early 1500s.
New markets:
Corn was later introduced to other parts of the world, including Africa and Asia, and became a global crop.